Zoonotic diseases have been a major public health concern for centuries, with the majority of emerging infectious diseases having a zoonotic origin. In recent years, the world has witnessed an increase in the development of antimicrobial-resistant pathogens, especially foodborne zoonotic bacteria. Developing countries, which have weak healthcare systems and limited access to appropriate antimicrobial therapy, are at a higher risk of zoonotic antimicrobial resistance. This article aims to explore the growing trends and threats of zoonotic antimicrobial resistance in developing countries from a One Health perspective.
Epidemiology of Zoonotic Transmission
Zoonotic transmission occurs through various pathways, including direct contact with infected animals, ingestion of contaminated food or water, and exposure to contaminated environments. In developing countries, where animal husbandry and small-scale farming are common practices, zoonotic transmission is a significant public health concern. For instance, Salmonella is a major foodborne pathogen in developing countries, causing diarrheal diseases and systemic infections. The transmission of Salmonella can occur through the consumption of contaminated animal products, such as poultry, beef, and eggs. Similarly, Escherichia coli is another zoonotic pathogen that causes diarrheal diseases and urinary tract infections, with the transmission mainly occurring through the consumption of contaminated food or water.
Risk Factors for Zoonotic Transmission
Various factors contribute to the emergence and spread of zoonotic diseases. Changes in land use, urbanization, and deforestation have led to increased contact between humans and wildlife, increasing the risk of zoonotic transmission. Environmental factors, such as climate change and habitat destruction, can also alter the distribution and behavior of animal reservoirs and vectors, leading to increased zoonotic transmission. The expansion of intensive animal farming and the use of antibiotics in animal production have also contributed to the emergence of antimicrobial-resistant zoonotic bacteria.
Additionally, In addition, socio-economic factors, such as poverty and lack of access to safe drinking water and sanitation, can also increase the risk of zoonotic transmission. For instance, in developing countries, poor sanitation practices and inadequate hygiene contribute to the spread of zoonotic pathogens, particularly through contaminated water sources.
Moreover, the misuse and overuse of antimicrobial agents in both human and animal health contribute to the development of antimicrobial resistance.
Antimicrobial Resistance Trends in Zoonotic Bacteria
Antimicrobial resistance is a major public health concern globally, with the emergence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria posing a significant threat to human and animal health. The misuse and overuse of antimicrobial agents have led to the emergence and spread of antimicrobial-resistant pathogens, particularly in developing countries. This is a major public health concern, as the effectiveness of antimicrobial agents in treating infectious diseases is decreasing, leading to increased morbidity, mortality, and healthcare costs.
Foodborne zoonotic bacteria such as Salmonella, Escherichia coli, Campylobacter, Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, and Brucella are top priorities for antimicrobial resistance.
In developing countries, these bacteria are endemic, and the use of antimicrobial agents in animal husbandry and small-scale farming is often unregulated, leading to the emergence of MDR strains. For instance, Salmonella typhimurium, a foodborne zoonotic pathogen, has been reported to be MDR in several developing countries, with resistance to fluoroquinolones and cephalosporins.
Furthermore, the use of antimicrobial agents in animal production is often unregulated, leading to the emergence of antimicrobial-resistant zoonotic bacteria. The high burden of infectious diseases, limited access to healthcare, and inadequate surveillance and control measures in developing countries further exacerbate the problem of antimicrobial resistance.
The trend of antimicrobial resistance varies across different types of zoonotic pathogens. For instance, resistance to third-generation cephalosporins in Salmonella and Escherichia coli is a major concern in many developing countries. Similarly, resistance to macrolides and fluoroquinolones in Campylobacter is increasing globally.
Epidemiology of Antimicrobial-Resistant Determinants and Virulence in ESKAPE Pathogens
ESKAPE pathogens (Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterobacter spp.) are a group of highly drug-resistant bacteria that pose a significant threat to human and animal health. These bacteria are responsible for several nosocomial infections, and the emergence of MDR strains is a major public health concern. They are responsible for a range of infections, including bloodstream infections, pneumonia, urinary tract infections, and surgical site infections.
In developing countries, the incidence of ESKAPE pathogens is high, with the use of antimicrobial agents in animal husbandry and small-scale farming contributing to the emergence of MDR strains. ESKAPE pathogens are a group of bacteria responsible for a significant proportion of healthcare-associated infections. The virulence and antimicrobial resistance determinants of ESKAPE pathogens vary depending on the species and strain. The emergence and spread of antimicrobial-resistant ESKAPE pathogens is a significant concern in healthcare settings.
Growing Trends and Threats of Zoonotic Antimicrobial Resistance in Developing Countries
Zoonotic diseases have become a major public health concern worldwide, affecting both developed and developing countries. These diseases, which are transmitted between animals and humans, are caused by a variety of pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi. In recent years, an alarming increase in the development of antimicrobial-resistant pathogens, especially foodborne zoonotic bacteria, has been observed. This has become a major global challenge, particularly in developing countries, where the burden of infectious diseases is high, and healthcare systems are often weak and under-resourced. In this article, we will discuss the growing trends and threats of zoonotic antimicrobial resistance in developing countries.
Combatting Zoonotic Antimicrobial Resistance
Controlling zoonotic bacteria and combatting antimicrobial resistance require a One Health approach. This approach recognizes the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health and promotes collaboration between human health, animal health, and environmental health sectors. Effective measures for controlling zoonotic bacteria include improving animal welfare, promoting good hygiene practices, implementing effective food safety measures, and reducing the use of antimicrobial agents in animal production. For developing countries, these include:
- Promoting the responsible use of antimicrobial agents in both human and animal health sectors, including the use of alternative approaches such as vaccination and improved animal husbandry practices.
- Strengthening surveillance systems for zoonotic pathogens and antimicrobial resistance in both human and animal populations.
- Improving hygiene and sanitation in food production and handling, including the implementation of good agricultural and veterinary practices.
- Increasing awareness and education on the risks of zoonotic diseases and antimicrobial resistance among healthcare providers, farmers, and the general public.
- Enhancing collaboration and coordination between human and animal health sectors, as well as with environmental and wildlife conservation agencies.
Conclusion
The growing trends and threats of zoonotic antimicrobial resistance in developing countries highlight the need for a One Health approach to combat infectious diseases and antimicrobial resistance. Effective surveillance systems, responsible use of antimicrobial agents, improved hygiene and sanitation, and increased awareness and education are key strategies to prevent the emergence and spread of zoonotic antimicrobial resistance. The global community must work together to address this public health challenge to ensure a safer and healthier future for all.